Smart autonomous aircraft: flight control and planning for UAV / Интеллектуальные БПЛА: планирование и управление полетом
Год издания: 2016
Автор: Yasmina Bestaoui Sebbane / Ясмина Бестауи-Сэбан
Издательство: Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISBN: 978-1-4822-9916-8
Язык: Английский
Формат: PDF
Качество: Издательский макет или текст (eBook)
Интерактивное оглавление: Да
Количество страниц: 434
Описание: The objective of this book is to give an interdisciplinary point of view on autonomous aircraft. It aims to develop models and review different methodologies of control and planning used to create smart autonomous aircraft. Some case studies are examined as well.
The topics considered in this book have been derived from the author’s research and teaching duties in smart aerospace and autonomous systems over several years. The other part is based on the top literature in the field. This book is primarily geared at advanced graduate students, PhD students, and researchers. It assumes at least an undergraduate-level background in engineering.
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Оглавление
Contents
Preface.........................................................................................................xv
Author .......................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction ...........................................................................1
1.1 Current UAV Presentation.............................................1
1.2 Autonomous Aircraft .....................................................4
1.3 Smart Autonomous Aircraft ..........................................9
1.4 Outline of the Book ..................................................... 11
Chapter 2 Modeling .............................................................................. 19
2.1 Introduction ................................................................. 19
2.2 Reference Frames and Coordinate Systems.................. 20
2.2.1 Inertial Frame................................................... 21
2.2.2 Earth-Centered Reference Frame...................... 21
2.2.2.1 Geocentric-inertial frame ................... 21
2.2.2.2 Earth frame ....................................... 21
2.2.3 Geographic Frame ............................................ 21
2.2.3.1 Navigation frame ............................... 21
2.2.3.2 Tangent plane frame .......................... 22
2.2.4 Body Frame...................................................... 22
2.2.5 Wind Frame...................................................... 24
2.2.6 Special Euclidean Group .................................. 25
2.3 Kinematic Models ........................................................ 26
2.3.1 Translational Kinematics.................................. 27
2.3.2 Six Degrees of Freedom Formulation................ 27
2.3.3 Special Euclidean Space ................................... 28
2.3.4 Curvature and Torsion ..................................... 28
2.4 Dynamic Models .......................................................... 29
2.4.1 Aerodynamics Forces and Moments ................. 30
2.4.1.1 Negligible side-slip angle.................... 32
2.4.1.2 Nonnegligible side-slip angle .............. 33
2.4.2 Translational Dynamics: Coordinated Flight.... 34
2.4.2.1 Aircraft at constant altitude.............. 38
2.4.2.2 Aircraft in a vertical flight................. 39
2.4.3 Translational Dynamics: Noncoordinated
Flight................................................................ 39
2.4.4 Six Degrees of Freedom Dynamics....................40
2.4.4.1 General formulation...........................40
2.4.4.2 Poincar´e formulation..........................42
2.4.4.3 Longitudinal model............................42
2.4.4.4 Lateral model.....................................43
2.4.5 Uncertainty.......................................................44
2.5 Multi-Model Approach.................................................48
2.5.1 Global Representation from Local Models .......48
2.5.2 Linear Approximate Model...............................49
2.5.2.1 Linear longitudinal model..................50
2.5.2.2 Linear lateral model...........................51
2.5.2.3 Linear translational model.................51
2.5.3 Linear Parameter Varying Model: Takagi–Sugeno Formulation..........................................53
2.5.3.1 Longitudinal model............................56
2.5.3.2 Lateral model.....................................57
2.5.3.3 Multi-model approach for tracking error model for an aircraft at constant altitude .....................................59
2.5.3.4 Multi-model approach for tracking error model for a 3D aircraft .............61
2.5.4 Fuzzy Modeling ................................................66
2.5.4.1 Type 1 Mamdani approach................66
2.5.4.2 Fuzzy estimation of Takagi–Sugeno models................................................68
2.5.4.3 Type 2 fuzzy systems.........................70
2.5.5 Linear Hybrid Automaton................................74
2.5.5.1 Stochastic linear hybrid system .........75
2.5.5.2 State transition..................................76
2.5.5.3 Specific fuel consumption...................77
2.6 Mission Tools ...............................................................77
2.6.1 Sensors..............................................................78
2.6.2 Camera Model ..................................................81
2.6.3 Software............................................................82
2.6.3.1 Petri nets ...........................................84
2.6.3.2 Middleware ........................................84
2.6.4 Human Supervisory Modeling ..........................85
2.6.4.1 Operator modeling.............................86
2.6.4.2 Retrial queuing model .......................87
2.7 Atmosphere..................................................................88
2.7.1 Gusts and Wind Shear .....................................90
2.7.2 Turbulence........................................................92
2.8 Conclusion....................................................................95
Chapter 3 Flight Control .................................................................... 103
3.1 Introduction ............................................................... 103
3.2 Linear Control Methods............................................. 105
3.2.1 Properties of Linear Systems.......................... 105
3.2.1.1 Controllability and observability...... 105
3.2.1.2 Stability of a linear system .............. 106
3.2.2 Linear Approaches for LTI Models................. 108
3.2.2.1 PID control...................................... 109
3.2.2.2 Classical methods ............................ 109
3.2.2.3 Adaptive approach........................... 111
3.2.2.4 Robust control method for LTI
models.............................................. 114
3.2.3 Gain Scheduling.............................................. 117
3.2.4 Receding Horizon Approach for LTV Models ............................................................ 118
3.2.5 Linear Parameter Varying Models.................. 119
3.2.5.1 Principle .......................................... 120
3.2.5.2 Parallel distributed compensator ..... 122
3.2.5.3 Integral action.................................. 124
3.2.5.4 Gain scheduling ............................... 126
3.2.5.5 Cost control analysis: Actuator saturation......................................... 129
3.3 Nonlinear Control ...................................................... 131
3.3.1 Affine Formulation of Aircraft Models............ 131
3.3.1.1 Affine formulation without drift ...... 135
3.3.1.2 Affine formulation with drift............ 136
3.3.1.3 Properties ........................................ 139
3.3.1.4 Decoupling by feedback linearization ..................................... 140
3.3.2 Input/Output Linearization ........................... 142
3.3.3 Dynamic Inversion.......................................... 143
3.3.4 Control Lyapunov Function Approach ........... 145
3.3.4.1 Properties ........................................ 146
3.3.4.2 Trajectory tracking .......................... 147
3.3.4.3 Path tracking................................... 149
3.3.4.4 Circular path following in wind with input constraints...................... 151
3.3.4.5 Tracking of moving targets with wind term ........................................ 153
3.3.4.6 Suboptimal control .......................... 155
3.3.4.7 Measurement error input to state stability............................................ 161
3.3.4.8 Control Lyapunov function based adaptive control ............................... 163
3.3.4.9 Noisy system.................................... 164
3.3.4.10 Backstepping control for affine systems with drift ............................ 166
3.3.4.11 Sliding mode control........................ 172
3.3.5 Model Predictive Control ............................... 181
3.4 Fuzzy Flight Control.................................................. 183
3.4.1 Fuzzy Approach for Tracking Moving Targets............................................................ 184
3.4.2 Stabilization of Takagi–Sugeno Systems under the Imperfect Premise Matching .......... 186
3.4.3 Fuzzy Model Predictive Control for Wind Disturbances Rejection................................... 189
3.5 Conclusion.................................................................. 192
Chapter 4 Flight Planning .................................................................. 199
4.1 Introduction ............................................................... 199
4.2 Path and Trajectory Planning ................................... 202
4.2.1 Trim Trajectories............................................ 204
4.2.2 Trajectory Planning........................................ 205
4.2.2.1 Time optimal trajectories ................ 205
4.2.2.2 Nonholonomic motion planning ....... 206
4.2.3 Path Planning................................................. 209
4.2.3.1 B-spline formulation ........................ 210
4.2.3.2 Cubic Hermite spline ....................... 211
4.2.3.3 Quintic Hermite spline..................... 211
4.2.3.4 Pythagorean hodographs ................. 212
4.2.4 Zermelo’s Problem.......................................... 213
4.2.4.1 Initial Zermelo’s problem................. 213
4.2.4.2 2D Zermelo’s problem on a flat Earth ............................................... 216
4.2.4.3 3D Zermelo’s problem on a flat Earth ............................................... 217
4.2.4.4 3D Zermelo’s problem on a spherical Earth ................................ 219
4.2.4.5 Virtual goal...................................... 221
4.3 Guidance and Collision/Obstacle Avoidance ............. 222
4.3.1 Guidance ........................................................ 223
4.3.1.1 Proportional navigation................... 224
4.3.1.2 Method of adjoints........................... 225
4.3.1.3 Fuzzy guidance scheme .................... 226
4.3.2 Static Obstacles Avoidance ............................ 229
4.3.2.1 Discrete methods ............................. 231
4.3.2.2 Continuous methods ........................ 241
4.3.3 Moving Obstacles Avoidance.......................... 244
4.3.3.1 D∗ algorithm ................................... 245
4.3.3.2 Artificial potential fields .................. 247
4.3.3.3 Online motion planner..................... 248
4.3.3.4 Zermelo–Voronoi diagram................ 249
4.3.4 Time Optimal Navigation Problem with
Moving and Fixed Obstacles .......................... 253
4.3.4.1 Problem formulation........................ 253
4.3.4.2 Control parametrization and time
scaling transform ............................. 254
4.3.4.3 RRT variation.................................. 255
4.4 Mission Planning........................................................ 256
4.4.1 Traveling Salesman Problem .......................... 258
4.4.2 Replanning or Tactical and Strategic
Planning ......................................................... 263
4.4.3 Route Optimization........................................ 265
4.4.3.1 Classic approach .............................. 265
4.4.3.2 Dynamic multi-resolution route optimization..................................... 268
4.4.4 Fuzzy Planning............................................... 271
4.4.4.1 Fuzzy decision tree cloning of flight
trajectories....................................... 272
4.4.4.2 Fuzzy logic for fire fighting aircraft ............................................. 275
4.4.5 Coverage Problem........................................... 277
4.4.5.1 Patrolling problem........................... 277
4.4.5.2 Routing problem.............................. 281
4.4.5.3 Discrete stochastic process for aircraft networks.............................. 283
4.4.5.4 Sensor tasking in multi-target search and tracking applications................. 287
4.4.6 Resource Manager for a Team of Autonomous Aircraft...................................... 292
4.4.6.1 Routing with refueling depots for a single aircraft ................................ 293
4.4.6.2 Routing with refueling depots for multiple aircraft............................... 296
4.5 Conclusion.................................................................. 298
Chapter 5 Flight Safety ...................................................................... 311
5.1 Introduction ............................................................... 311
5.2 Situation Awareness................................................... 313
5.2.1 Filters ............................................................. 314
5.2.1.1 Classical Kalman filter..................... 314
5.2.1.2 Extended Kalman filter ................... 316
5.2.1.3 Unscented Kalman filter .................. 318
5.2.1.4 Monte Carlo filter ............................ 321
5.2.1.5 Particle filter.................................... 323
5.2.1.6 Wind estimation .............................. 326
5.2.2 Aerial Simultaneous Localization and Mapping ......................................................... 328
5.2.2.1 Problem formulation........................ 328
5.2.2.2 Inertial SLAM algorithm ................. 332
5.2.2.3 Sense-and-avoid setup...................... 336
5.2.2.4 Monocular visual–inertial SLAM using fuzzy logic controllers............. 338
5.2.3 Geolocation..................................................... 339
5.2.3.1 Cooperative geolocation with articulating cameras......................... 339
5.2.3.2 Geolocation with bias estimation..... 341
5.3 Integrated System Health Monitoring........................ 342
5.3.1 Diagnostic Tools and Approaches................... 346
5.3.1.1 Sensor selection and optimization.... 349
5.3.1.2 Hazard alerting ................................ 350
5.3.1.3 Fault tree analysis............................ 351
5.3.1.4 Failure modes and effects analysis ... 354
5.3.2 Risk-Based Sensor Management..................... 355
5.3.2.1 Bayesian sequential detection .......... 356
5.3.2.2 Bayesian sequential estimation ........ 357
5.4 Fault Tolerant Flight Control .................................... 358
5.4.1 Linear Time Invariant Formulation ................ 359
5.4.2 Linear Parameter Varying Formulation.......... 360
5.4.2.1 Short-period dynamics..................... 360
5.4.2.2 General formulation......................... 361
5.4.3 Sliding Mode Approach .................................. 364
5.4.4 Direct Model Reference Adaptive Control...... 366
5.4.4.1 Linear approach............................... 366
5.4.4.2 Nonlinear approach.......................... 370
5.4.5 Backstepping Approach.................................. 372
5.4.6 Control Probabilistic Methods ....................... 374
5.5 Fault Tolerant Planner............................................... 377
5.5.1 Artificial Intelligence Planners........................ 377
5.5.2 Trim State Discovery...................................... 378
5.5.3 Obstacle/Collision Avoidance Systems........... 384
5.5.3.1 Safety analysis of collision/obstacle
avoidance system ............................. 384
5.5.3.2 Informative motion planning ........... 386
5.5.4 Geometric Reinforcement Learning for Path Planning ......................................................... 387
5.5.5 Probabilistic Weather Forecasting.................. 389
5.5.6 Risk Measurement .......................................... 391
5.6 Conclusion.................................................................. 393
Chapter 6 General Conclusions........................................................... 403
Acronyms................................................................................................... 405
Nomenclature............................................................................................. 411
Описание на русском
Цель этой книги-дать междисциплинарную точку зрения на автономные летательные аппараты. Она направлена на разработку моделей и обзор различных методологий управления полетом и планирования маршрута, используемых для создания интеллектуальных автономных самолетов.
Темы, рассматриваемые в этой книге, были выведены из исследовательских и преподавательских работ автора в области интеллектуальных аэрокосмических и автономных систем в течение нескольких лет. Другая часть основана на лучшей литературе в этой области. Эта книга в первую очередь ориентирована на продвинутых студентов, аспирантов и исследователей. Это предполагает, по крайней мере, уровень бакалавриата в области инженерии.
Эта книга содержит информацию, полученную из достоверных и широко известных источников. Были предприняты разумные усилия для публикации достоверных данных и информации, но автор и издатель не могут нести ответственность за достоверность всех материалов или последствия их использования. Авторы и издатели предприняли попытку отследить правообладателей всех материалов, воспроизведенных в данной публикации, и принести извинения правообладателям, если разрешение на публикацию в этой форме не было получено. Если какой-либо авторский материал не был признан, пожалуйста, напишите и дайте нам знать, чтобы мы могли исправить его в любой будущей перепечатке.
